A

agaric  a general term for fungi with fruit bodies comprising a cap, gills and stem, i.e. the ‘gilled mushrooms and toadstools’.

annulus (ring)  a band or bands of tissue usually derived from the partial (inner) veil, girdling the stem of some mushroom fungi. (e.g. see Fig. 3, p. 51; Fig. 6, p. 59).

ascocarp  the fruit body of ascomycetes, producing and disseminating the ascospores; includes cup fungi, morels, earth-tongues, and a range of other types.

ascomycete(s)  fungi which reproduce sexually by asci producing ascospores. Many are microscopic, but those with large fruit bodies include morels, earth-tongues, cup fungi and truffles.

ascospore  a sexual spore of an ascomycete, borne in an ascus.

ascus  (pl. asci) microscopic sack or tube-like structures containing the developing spores of ascomycetes (e.g. Fig. 9, p. 70)

B

basal mycelium  mycelium at the base of a mushroom stem or attached and immediately below any fruit body.

basal pad  an extremely reduced columella or zone of sterile tissue at the base of some truffles and truffle-like fungi; also referred to as a sterile base.

basidiocarp  fruit body of basidiomycetes, producing and disseminating the spores. Includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, brackets, corals, clubs, and a range of other types.

basidiomycete(s)  fungi that reproduce sexually by basidia producing spores. Many are microscopic, but those with large fruit bodies include jelly fungi, puffballs, stinkhorns, mushrooms, corals and club fungi, bracket fungi, and truffle-like fungi.

basidiospore  sexual spore of basidiomycetes, borne on basidia.

basidium  (pl. basidia) microscopic club-like structure bearing the developing basidiospores of basidiomycetes. (e.g. see Fig. 9, p. 70)

biotrophic fungi (biotrophs)  obligately parasitic fungi growing on other living organisms (the hosts), in intimate contact with their cytoplasm. For example, mycorrhizal fungi.  cf. necrotrophic fungi, symbiotic fungi.

bolete  a mushroom-like fungus with tubes and pores underneath the cap; usually soft and fleshy, unlike pored ‘polypores’ which are usually rubbery, corky or woody. See further explanation on p. 76.   (e.g. Austroboletus occidentalis, p. 300; Suillus luteus, p. 310)

boletoid  resembling a bolete but not belonging to bolete groups, i.e. mushroom-like with tubes and pores beneath the cap. (e.g. fruit bodies of Laccocephalum (Polyporus) mylittae, p. 328).

bracket-like  of fungi,  having bracket-shaped fruit bodies. Often produced on trees or wood.  In this book bracket-fungi correspond to part of Holobasidiomycetes Group 3.  (e.g. Ganoderma australe, p. 320; Piptoporus australiensis, p. 322; Pycnoporus coccineus, p. 330)  cf., polypores.

bruising  of the surface and flesh of some fruit bodies, changing colour when damaged or exposed to air, e.g. blueing flesh of some boletes such as Gyroporus sp., p. 308.

button  a very young, developing fruit body. Usually refers to young mushrooms before their cap and stem has expanded. Sometimes called a primordium.

C

caespitose  usually refers to the habit whereby numerous fruit bodies are fused together at their base. (e.g. Mycena subgalericulata, p. 206).

cap (pileus)  an umbrella-like or variously-shaped part of a fruit body that supports the spore- producing tissue such as the gills of mushrooms.

columella  sterile tissue representing a rudimentary stipe (stem) in many truffle-like fungi and some other fungi. The columella may extend to the top of the gleba (percurrent columella, e.g. Thaxterogaster basipurpureum, p. 282), partial way (truncate columella), be branched into many thin intrusions throughout the gleba (dendritic columella, e.g. Austrogautieria manjimupana, p. 240), or emergent outside below the fruit body (stipitate columella, e.g. Macowanites luteiroseus, p. 138). It may be reduced to a small basal pad at the base of the gleba, or absent.  (e.g. see Fig. 3, p. 51)

context (flesh)  macroscopic term for the sterile mass of mycelium composing fruit bodies.

coprophilous (fimicolous)  inhabiting dung. (e.g. Psilocybe coprophila, p. 236)

corticolous  growing on bark.

cortina  a cobweb-like partial (inner) veil of some mushroom-like fungi. Cortinoid veils either soon disappear (e.g. see Fig. 2b, p. 50; Cortinarius archeri, p. 242).

cryptogams  spore-producing organisms, generally less conspicuous than flowering plants, e.g. algae, fungi, mosses and ferns.

D

E

ectomycorrhizal fungi  mycorrhizal fungi that contact plant roots by enveloping them and penetrating between the cells. When conditions are suitable, the mycelium is triggered into producing a fruit body, such as some types of mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, coral fungi, truffles and a range of other types.  cf. endomycorrhizal fungi, mycorrhizal fungi.

endomycorrhizal fungi  differ from ectomycorrhizal fungi by penetrating inside the cells of plant roots and not forming a sheath around the roots. Includes vesicular arbuscular and ericoid/epacrid types of mycorrhiza.  Although endomycorrhizal fungi are as common as ectomycorrhizal fungi, they involve less different types of fungi and generally do not produce large fruit bodies.  cf. ectomycorrhizal fungi, mycorrhizal fungi.

epigeous fungi  larger fungi that produce above-ground fruit bodies on the soil surface, wood, trees and many other substrates. Includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, corals, and a range of other types.  cf. hypogeous fungi.

F

facultative  of an organism, having more than one mode of life, e.g. able to live as a saprotroph and as a parasite.  cf. obligative.

fairy ring  circular or arched zone of fruit bodies (e.g. of mushrooms or puffballs), usually in well fertilised areas such as lawns. Occurs at the growing circumference of a mycelium which has radiated more or less uniformly from a central point of origin.

fimicolous (coprophilous)  inhabiting dung. (e.g. Psilocybe coprophila, p. 236)

fruit body  the reproductive structure of larger fungi (and micro fungi), producing and disseminating usually the sexual spores (less often asexual spores). Other names include carpophore, fruiting body, fructification, sporocarp, sporophore.   cf. basidiocarp (for basidiomycetes), and ascocarp (for ascomycetes).

G

gasteromycetes  an artificial group of fungi containing a diverse range of basidiomycetes with spores that are not forcibly discharged from their basidia, but are dispersed by wind, rain, animals or other means. This term is no longer widely used, as many members are now known to be only distantly related to each other. The group includes puffballs, stinkhorns, earthstars, bird’s nest fungi, and many other forms. In this book, the gasteromycetes largely correspond to Holobasidiomycetes group 1, and the truffle-like (former) gasteromycetes are allocated to Holobasidiomycetes groups 1, 2 and 3.

gastroid  fungi  loosely includes larger fungi (basidiomycetes) with underground, semi-underground or less often emergent fruit bodies, completely enclosed hymenium, and without a distinct pileus (cap) or stipitate columella. Many gastroid fungi are closely related to mushroom-like fungi. Fruit bodies of gastroid fungi less closely resemble agarics than do those of secotioid fungi which are another main broad type of truffle-like fungi.  (e.g. Zelleromyces daucinus, p. 136; Austrogautieria manjimupana, p. 240; Descomyces albus, p. 268)  cf. secotioid fungi, sequestrate fungi, truffle-like fungi.

gill (lamella)  radially arranged plate-like structures on the underside of a mushroom, supporting the fertile surface (hymenium) on which the spores are produced.

gilled fungus  a mushroom-like fungus having gills underneath the cap. Often referred to as mushrooms or toadstools, or ‘the mushrooms and toadstools’. Distinguished from mushroom-like fungi with pores - the ‘boletes’.  See further explanation on p. 76.   cf. bolete, mushroom, mushroom-like, toadstool.

H

herbarium  (pl. herbaria) a long-term collection of preserved plants, fungi or other ‘botanical’ specimens.

humicolous (terricolous)  living or growing on or in soil.

hymenium  an organised fertile layer producing spores. In larger fungi contains asci or basidia. (e.g. see Fig. 9, p. 70)

hymenophore   the part of a fruit body which has the fertile layer (hymenium), e.g. the gills of a mushroom.

hypha  (pl. hyphae) an individual microscopic thread-like structure which is the fundamental living and growth component of most fungi. In its vegetative phase it grows together with other hyphae in a mycelium. In its reproductive phase it collectively organises into specialised fruiting structures.  cf. mycelium.

hypogeous fungi  larger fungi which produce below-ground fruit bodies. Includes truffles (ascomycetes) and truffle-like fungi (basidiomycetes).  cf. epigeous fungi.

I

inner veil  see partial veil.

J

K

L

lamellate  with gills.

lamellula (lamellule)  (pl. lamellulae, lamellules) a short gill that occurs between normal gills. They extend only part of the way from the cap margin to the stem of mushroom-like fungi. (e.g. see Fig. 5, p. 58)

lamella (gill)  (pl. lamellae, gills) a radially arranged plate-like structure on the under-side of a mushroom. Supports the fertile surface (hymenium) on which the spores are produced. (e.g. see Fig. 5, p. 58)

larger fungi (macrofungi)  any fungus which produces structures (usually fruit bodies) that are clearly visible to the naked eye, such as mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, cup fungi, and truffles. They are also referred to as macrofungi, or macromycetes. 

lichen  an association between an alga or cyanobacterium and a fungus. Lichens are mostly formed by an extremely diverse range of ascomycetes, and far fewer basidiomycetes. Usually the partners comprising a lichen are unable to live apart.

lignicolous  growing on wood.

M

macrofungi  cf. larger fungi. 

macroscopic  large structures observable without the use of a microscope.  cf. microscopic.

micron (micrometre)  unit of measurement equal to 0.001 mm. Written as m or mm.

microscopic  structures usually observable only with the use of a microscope.  cf. macroscopic.

mould  a fungus growth (mycelium) producing either no reproductive propagules or microscopic asexual or sexual structures, but not large fruit bodies.  cf. mycelium.

muscicolous  living with mosses or liverworts.

mushroom  in the strictest sense may refer only to members of the genus Agaricus. However, often any fungus with a cap more or less centrally placed on top of a stem is called a mushroom, especially if edible.  See further explanation on p. 76.   cf. bolete, gilled fungus, mushroom-like, toadstool.

mushroom-like  of fungi, having a distinct cap and stem. Often referred to as mushrooms or toadstools, or ‘the mushrooms and toadstools’. Mushroom-like fungi with gills are often called ‘gilled fungi’, and those with pores ‘boletes’. See further explanation on p. 76.    cf. bolete, gilled fungus, mushroom, toadstool.

mycelium  (pl. mycelia) a collective term for the masses of hyphae that comprise the vegetative phase of a fungus. Can sometimes be seen with the naked eye as a cob web-like growth (sometimes referred to as mould) in soil or on other substrates. When conditions are suitable the mycelium produces spores and/or fruit bodies.  cf. hypha, mould.

myco-   a prefix, pertaining to fungi.

mycology  the scientific study of fungi.

 mycophagy  consuming fungi. Often referring to small mammals (mycophagists) that dig up and consume truffles and truffle-like fungi.

mycorrhizal fungi  fungi having a usually mutually beneficial (mutualistic, symbiotic) relationship with host plants via a two-way exchange that occurs in morphologically modified roots known as mycorrhiza (also called mycorrhizae, mycorrhizas or mycorrhizal roots). Photosynthates (carbohydrates/sugars) from the plant are transferred to the fungus in one direction, while soil nutrients and water are transported to the plant in the other direction from the fungus. The term 'mycorrhiza' literally means 'fungus root'.  cf. ectomycorrhizal fungi, endomycorrhizal fungi, parasitic fungi, symbiotic fungi.

N

necrotrophic fungi (necrotrophs)  parasitic fungi that derive their nutrients and energy from dead cells of other organisms (the hosts). For example, pathogenic fungi.   cf. biotrophic fungi, pathogenic fungi.

O

obligative  of an organism, with strictly one mode of life, e.g. able to live only as a parasite.  cf. facultative.

outer veil  see universal veil.

P

parasitic fungi (parasites)  fungal invaders of other living organisms (hosts) from which they obtain nutrients and energy.  The host may be barely affected (commensalistic association), advantaged (beneficial association), or become diseased or killed (pathogenic association) by invasive fungi.  Includes biotrophs (obligate parasites growing on other living organisms) and necrotrophs (parasites that derive their energy from dead cells of the hosts).  The former type includes fungi living with their host organism in a symbiotic (mostly mutually beneficial) relationship (e.g. mycorrhizal fungi). The latter type includes fungi in a pathogenic relationship causing disease and/or death of its host.  cf. biotrophic fungi, necrotrophic fungi, pathogenic fungi, saprotrophic fungi, symbiotic fungi.

partial veil (inner veil)  a protective layer of tissue in some mushrooms. In a young fruit body it extends from the cap margin to the stem and covers the gills during development, later breaking to expose the mature gills. A partial veil is absent in many mushroom-like fungi. The texture of the intact partial veil varies from a cobweb-like structure called a cortina  to membranous. The latter form commonly persists in mature fruit bodies as an annulus (ring) on the stem and/or as a rim on the cap margin (appendiculate cap margin).  (e.g. see Fig. 3, p. 51; Fig. 6, p. 59)   cf. annulus (ring), cortina, universal (outer) veil.

pathogenic fungi (pathogens)  parasitic fungi which invade other living organisms and cause disease and/or death of their hosts.  cf. parasitic fungi, symbiotic fungi.

pellis  the outer edge (skin) of mushroom-like fruit bodies.

peridium  the outer edge (pellis) of puffballs, earthstars, truffle-like fungi and many other fungi besides mushrooms.

pileus (cap)  the umbrella- or variously-shaped part of a fruit body that supports the spore- producing tissue (hymenium) such as the gills of mushrooms.

polypore  a general term for bracket-like fungi and similar fungi that are typically rubbery, corky or woody. They have a pored hymenium, but differ from the boletes which are usually soft and fleshy. (e.g. Laccocephalum (Polyporus) mylittae, p. 328; Pycnoporus coccineus, p. 330)   cf. bolete, bracket-like fungi.

poroid  with pores.

Q

R

resupinate  entirely appressed on the substrate (usually refers to fruit bodies).

ring (annulus)  see annulus.

S

saprotrophic fungi (saprotrophs, saprophytes, saprobes)  fungi that obtain nutrients and energy from dead and decaying organic matter such as in soil, litter or wood. Commonly facilitating decay of the substrate.  cf. parasitic fungi.

secotioid fungi  loosely includes larger fungi (basidiomycetes) with underground, semi-underground or less often emergent fruit bodies having a distinct pileus (cap) and stipitate columella. The gleba ranges from greatly convoluted to gill-like and remains enclosed by the fruit body during most or all stages of development, including at maturity.  Many secotioid fungi are closely related to mushroom-like fungi.  Fruit bodies of secotioid fungi more closely resemble agarics than do those of gastroid fungi which are another main broad type of truffle-like fungi.  (e.g. Macowanites luteiroseus, p. 138; Torrendia arenaria, p. 174; Cortinarius globuliformis, p. 250)   cf. gastroid fungi, sequestrate fungi, truffle-like fungi.

septum (pl. septa)  a cross wall delimiting the compartments (cells) that comprise fungal hyphae.  Hyphae with septa are termed as ‘septate’.

sequestrate fungi (false truffles, truffle-like fungi)  See truffle-like fungi, truffles.

sessile  of a fruit body, lacking a stem so that the cap is joined directly to the substrate.

slime moulds  fungal-like organisms many of which have an amoeboid phase and a sporing phase. They are not part of the Kingdom Fungi but are aligned with Protozoa.

spore  morphologically differentiated reproductive unit often capable of dispersal, dormancy and survival during adverse conditions, and germination. 

spore print  deposition of spores discharged from a fruit body accumulated over sufficient time so as to become visible (usually requires several hours or more). Can be produced on paper to enable assessment of the colour which may help to characterise/identify fungi.

sporocarp  spore-producing structure.  cf. fruit body, sporome.

stem (stipe)  a structure that supports the cap of a mushroom and some other kinds of fungi. (e.g. see Fig. 3, p. 51)

substratum (substrate)  the nourishing and supporting base on which fungi grow, e.g. soil, wood, leaves, other fungi, animals.

symbiotic fungi (mutualists, mutualistic fungi, symbionts)  parasitic fungi which invade other living organisms, and are involved in symbiotic (mostly mutually beneficial) relationships with their host.  e.g. mycorrhizal fungi associated with plants. Note: the broadest definitions of ‘symbiosis’ accommodate mutually beneficial, neutral (commensalistic) and harmful parasitic relationships.  cf. parasitic fungi, mycorrhizal fungi.

T

terricolous (humicolous)  living or growing on soil.

toadstool  a general non-scientific term for any mushroom-like fungus that looks different from Agaricus (the commercial white button and field mushrooms), or is suspected or known to be poisonous. More broadly, many people consider ‘toadstools’ to also include other non-mushroom-like forms of fungi such as puffballs, earthstars, and coral fungi.  See p. 6 for further explanation.  cf. mushroom, mushroom-like.

truffle-like  with a superficial similarity to fruit bodies of the famous ‘gourmet truffles’ which belong to the ascomycetes genus Tuber.  The fertile tissue (hymenium) is enclosed within an underground, spherical or variously-shaped fruit body.  cf. gastroid, secotioid, sequestrate fungi, truffle-like fungi, truffles.

truffle-like fungi (false truffles, sequestrate fungi) loosely includes larger fungi (basidiomycetes) with underground, semi-underground or less often emergent fruit bodies. Their spores generally are not forcibly discharged from the basidia and usually remain enclosed by the fruit body during most or all stages of development, including at maturity. They are referred to as  ‘truffle-like fungi’ and as ‘false truffles’ in reference to their superficial similarity to the famous ‘gourmet truffles’ which belong to the ascomycetes genus Tuber.  Truffle-like fungi are also often referred to as comprising at least two main broad types -  ‘gastroid fungi’ and ‘secotioid fungi’, or alternatively as  ‘sequestrate fungi’.  Many truffle-like fungi are closely related to mushroom-like fungi.  Note that some people may refer to all underground/semi underground-fruiting larger fungi - basidiomycetes and ascomycetes (aside from genus Tuber) - as ‘truffle-like fungi’. In this book however, we reserve the term ‘truffle-like fungi’ (and associated terms ‘false truffles’, and ‘sequestrate fungi’) only for basidiomycetes, and use the term ‘truffles’ for ascomycetes.  (e.g. ‘gastroid’ - Zelleromyces daucinus p. 136; ‘secotioid’ - Macowanites luteiroseus, p. 138)  cf. gastroid fungi, secotioid fungi, sequestrate fungi, truffles.

truffles in the strictest sense, underground-fruiting fungi belonging to the ascomycete genus Tuber -  the ‘gourmet truffles’.  More broadly (as used in this book) refers to any underground or semi underground-fruiting larger fungi of the ascomycetes. Truffles are putatively all mycorrhizal, and cultivation of Tuber and some other genera for the gourmet food market is now being investigated in many parts of the world including Australia.  Note that some people may variously refer to all underground/semi underground-fruiting larger fungi - ascomycetes and basidiomycetes - as ‘truffles’, or as (aside from Tuber) ‘truffle-like fungi’. In this book however, we reserve the term ‘truffles’ for ascomycetes, and reserve the term ‘truffle-like fungi’ (and associated term ‘sequestrate fungi’) for basidiomycetes.  cf. truffle-like.

U

universal veil (outer veil)  a protective layer of tissue in some mushrooms. When young it covers the entire unexpanded fruit body. Later it ruptures and then may remain at least for some time on the expanded mushroom as scales or warts on the cap surface (veil remnants) and as a cup or multiple zones (volva) at or near the base of the stem.  A universal veil is absent in many mushroom-like fungi. (e.g. see Fig. 3., p. 51; Fig. 6, p. 59)  cf. partial (inner) veil, volva.

V

veil  outer layers of tissue that protect the developing fruit body of some basidiomycetes, e.g. some mushroom-like fungi have a partial veil (extending from the cap margin to the apex of the stem), and a universal veil (enveloping the entire young fruit body).  (e.g. see Fig. 3, p. 51; Fig. 6, p.59)   cf. partial (inner) veil, universal (outer) veil.

volva  tissue derived from the universal (outer) veil remaining at or near the base of a mushroom stem. It may appear as a loose or adhering sack or cup, or as multiple zones of tissue. (e.g. see Fig. 6, p. 59; Amanita xanthocephala, p. 172; Volvariella speciosa, p. 226)   cf. universal (outer) veil.

W

X

Y

Z

zygomycete(s)  fungi that reproduce sexually by conjugation of gametangia producing zygospores. Most are microscopic. The few zygomycetes with truly large fruit bodies are truffle-like.